LBR on the Sinaiticus

The London Book Review has a review of the exhibition on "the most famous codex of them all," Codex Sinaiticus at the British Library in London. The exhibition coincides with making the codex available online. (See it here.) Peter Campbell writes,

The library holds 347 leaves of the Sinaiticus, bought in 1933 (there was a public subscription) from the Russian government. They arrived as a single, coverless stack of quires. Now bound as two volumes they can be seen in the library’s gallery. Another 43 leaves are in the university library in Leipzig, parts of six are in St Petersburg. Twelve leaves and 40 fragments, recovered by monks in 1975 from a space uncovered during building work, are still in the Monastery of St Catherine, Mount Sinai. That was where the Leipzig archaeologist Constantin von Tischendorf was finally shown the bulk of the Sinaiticus in 1859 (he’d taken the other pages away in 1844). He eventually persuaded the monks to present it to the tsar.

Written out in the mid-fourth century, the Sinaiticus originally consisted of 730 parchment leaves measuring 380mm by 345mm. Most of the pages are set out in four narrow columns, but metrical passages – the Psalms, for instance – are in two. The text, written in Greek capitals without word breaks, is in brown ink with some words and lines in red. The Sinaiticus, very plain and very grand, and a manuscript in the Vatican of about the same date share the distinction of being the earliest extant manuscripts of the Christian Bible: that is, of the Greek text of the Septuagint (the Old Testament in the version that was adopted by early Greek-speaking Christians) and the Christian New Testament. This material, made into a single monumental volume, gave physical expression to the idea that the New Testament recorded the fulfilment of prophecies in the Old Testament. Its form – codex, not scroll – emphasised its difference from the Jewish scriptures it included.

The Sinaiticus is much corrected. On the website a transcription in which inserted or over-written letters and words are highlighted accompanies the image of each manuscript page. The alterations are, in modern terms, copy editors’ or proofreaders’ work – spellings corrected, the odd missing word inserted. Some corrections were made while the original work was in progress, others much later, but the striking fact is that the text of the New Testament pages has changed hardly at all since it was first written down – the Sinaiticus is an edition of an established text. The Hebrew scriptures took their canonical form much later. With the New Testament there was no place for a sub-editor to clarify meaning or cure infelicities. Editorial care can express reverence for such a text; the editor’s reward may be the insights thoughtful analysis brings him or her rather than new readings discovered. The work put into a new edition of Shakespeare’s Sonnets, say, is not going to result in a text so different from the last that even the most careful reader will feel he’s been offered a new experience. In religious texts, however, error can be scandalous, and the British Library display includes copies of Bibles in which (it’s hard to imagine it was always accidental) mischievous compositors introduced corruptions. The ‘adulterer’s Bible’ of 1631 omits a ‘not’ so that Exodus 20.14 reads ‘Thou shalt commit adultery,’ and, in Deuteronomy 5.24, replaces ‘greatness’ to give: ‘The Lord hath showed us his glory and his great arse.’ The printers were fined £300 and lost their licence to print.

The Sinaiticus, earlier, and in many things more authoritative than other sources, is a starting point for new editions and translations. After its removal from Mount Sinai, technology paid it the tribute of state of the art facsimiles. In the 19th century fonts were specially cut to match the original characters, in the 20th reproductions of photographs of the pages were printed in collotype – then the most prestigious of printing processes. The digitised codex is the 21st century’s best shot.

Fourth Century Church Chronology

Here are fourth century excerpts from an extensive church timeline. It's an impressive amount of work - and though I don't agree with everything the compiler chose to include/not include, it's still very helpful for anyone pulling together information on the fourth century.

301 Diocletian set the stage for the Middle Ages with an edict which forced tradesmen to remain in their trades and their descendants to follow in their footsteps. Tenants were compelled to remain on their land for life.

303 9th Persecution of the Church, under Diocletian. When augurs could no longer find the usual signs on the livers of sacrificed animals, Diocletian consulted the oracle of Apollo at Miletus. The god blamed the Christians. On 23 Feb 303, the Christian cathedral in Nicomedia was torn down. The next day, an edict declared all churches were to be destroyed, all Bibles and liturgical books surrendered, sacred vessels confiscated, and all meetings for (Christian) worship forbidden.

306 A dispute arose between Peter, bishop of Alexandria, and Meletius, bishop of Lycopolis. Peter had Meletius deposed for fomenting discord: Meletius was critical of the light penances Peter imposed on those who lapsed during Diocletian’s persecution. Persecution began again in 308, and Meletius was exiled to the mines in Palestine. He returned in 311, and led a schism after being excommunicated by Peter. The Meletians were to become allies of the Arians against Athanasius.

312 Constantine defeated his rival Maxentius at the battle of the Milvian bridge outside Rome. The legend is, on the way to this battle, he saw a cross in the sky one afternoon with the words Hoc vince (by this conquer), and he adopted the cross as his standard. He was emperor in the West.

313 Constantine issued the Edict of Milan: Christianity was given a legal status equal to paganism.

314 On 1 August, Constantine, Emperor of the West, called the Council of Arles (Arelate), a general council of the Western church, presided over by the bishops of Arles and Syracuse.

326 The first St. Peter’s Basilica was begun in Rome. It was finished roughly 30 years later. The church was demolished early in the sixteenth century and a new church was erected.

335 The Despositio Martyrum, a calendar of Roman martyrs, had been written by this year.

335 According to Eusebius of Caesarea in his biography of Constantine, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem was dedicated in this year.

337 Constantine was baptized by Eusebius of Nicomedia, and died, May 22. Constantine delayed baptism until the point of death as was common in the fourth century, but considered himself a Christian from 313.

347 In August, the Western emperor Constans exiled Donatus and other Donatist leaders to Gaul. Donatus died there in 355. The emperor Julian allowed the Donatists to return to Africa in 361.

350 At around this time Codex Sinaiticus (S, or Aleph) was written. It consists of the Septuagint (without 2-3 Maccabees, the Psalms of Solomon, or Psalm 151) plus the 27 New Testament books, plus Barnabas and Hermas (though it is missing Hermas 31:7 to the end of the book). Sinaiticus is of the Alexandrian family, but is regarded as transmitting a Western text.

353 Hilary became bishop of Poitiers. He violently denounced people who held that Mary had not remained a virgin after Jesus’ birth, and maintained that Jesus’ brothers were Joseph’s children by an earlier marriage.

353 The emperor Constantius felt that the way to oust the Nicene bishops, Athanasius in particular, was to have the Western bishops, historically Athanasius’ supporters, condemn him. At Constantius’ wish, a council was held at Arles to consider the old charges against Athanasius. The council was run by the Arian bishop of Arles, Saturninus. Athanasius was found guilty by nearly all present. However, Constantius was too busy with a war on the frontiers of Gaul to proceed further against Athanasius at that time.

354/5 The emperor Constantius had a council meet at Milan to condemn Athanasius. Three bishops who disagreed with Constantius’ desired verdict of guilty were sent into exile.

In this year, Hilary of Poitiers began to induce bishops of Gaul to withdraw from communion with Saturninus of Arles, and with Ursacius and Valens, the disciples of Arius who were now influential with Constantius. Hilary also wrote a letter to Constantius protesting that Athanasius had been found innocent by councils long before, and the Arians guilty – so it was egregious for the condemned to be allowed to intrigue against the innocent.

356 Hilary of Poitiers exiled to Asia after being found guilty of some unspecified misconduct by a council at Beziers, presided over by Saturninus. Many Western bishops who refused to condemn Athanasius were sent East during this period.

361 Constantius died, November 3, 361. Julian “the Apostate” became emperor. He died in 363 during a campaign against the Persians. Julian proclaimed his paganism and, in hopes of further disrupting the church, published an edict recalling all bishops exiled by Constantius. Julian also gave permission and provided funds for the Jews to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem. This project was terminated by an earthquake.

Ambrose mentions (Letter 40) that the Jews burned two basilicas in Damascus, others in Gaza, Ascalon, Berytus and Alexandria during Julian’s reign.

361 First mention of Epiphany in the West. Its observance in Gaul was noted by Ammianus Marcellinus, a pagan. Curiously, there is no record of December 25 observance in transalpine Gaul during the fourth century.

362 On Feb 9, Julian published an edict that recalled the bishops who had been exiled by Constantius.

367-9 Christians in Gaul persecuted during the Eastern emperor Valens’ Gothic war.

371 St. Martin became bishop of Tours. A child of pagan parents, Martin had become a Christian when he was 10 years old. He was forced into the Roman army, but petitioned the Emperor Julian the Apostate, and was eventually discharged. He then became an evangelist, working in Pannonia and Illyricum. In 360, he joined Hilary of Poitiers in that city, then founded the first monastery in Gaul, at Liguge (near Poitiers). As bishop, Martin continued to act as an evangelist, especially in Touraine and the countryside where the faith was little known.

384 A synod meeting in Bourdeaux (Burdigala, Aquitania), attended by Martin of Tours, condemned Priscillianism (see 380, Saragossa). Though Martin opposed the killing of heretics, the Emperor Magnus Maximus (383-88) had Priscillian executed.

385 The Pilgrimage of Sylvia, written about this time, described the journey to Palestine by a devout lady (Sylvia, or Etheria) from Gaul. Silvia stated that on Ascension Day (40 days after Easter) there was a solemn procession to the Mount of Olives. The procession ended at the church of the Ascension built on the mount by the Empress Helena. The Pilgrimage also mentions the Feast of Purification (or Hypapante, now celebrated on February 2) as being then observed in Jerusalem on 14 February, forty days after Epiphany, the date on which Christ’s birth was celebrated. Hypapante came to be called Candlemas because of the words of Simeon (Luke 2.32). See 542.

388 Ambrose, bishop of Milan, rebuked the emperor Theodosius for punishing rioters who had destroyed a Jewish synagogue.

389 St. Gregory of Nyssa composed his Commentary on the Canticle of Canticles. In this commentary, in his Life of Moses, and in other works, Gregory enunciated his mystical theology. Against the pagan notion that change is imperfection - which had led, in Origen, to the notion that men might fall into sin again, even in the future life - Gregory described the perfection of man as an eternal ascent into ever-increasing holiness. No changeless state is achievable, because God is wrapped in an impenetrable divine darkness - no created being can ever know him completely.

391 In two edicts issued this year and in 392, Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the empire. Paganism was proscribed.

394 Olympic games abolished.

395 Augustine bishop of Hippo (in North Africa). Died 430. Author of the Confessions, the City of God, etc. Apart from being the most influential Western theologian of the early church, Augustine was a strong exponent of Mary’s permanent virginity. He held that Mary was sinless, though not through her own will (as the Pelagians would have it) but by virtue of a special grace. Mary had, however, been born subject to original sin like all other humans. But she had been delivered from its effects by the grace of rebirth.

Fourth Century Codex Sinaiticus Now Online

Eight hundred pages of the fourth century Codex Sinaiticus, the oldest Bible in the world (however it may sound like a disease...), are now viewable at http://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/

Four scribes wrote it in Greek at about the time of the Roman emperor Constantine the Great in the fourth century. Its pages are vellum parchment made from the skins of donkeys or antelopes, preserved in the dry desert air of the oldest Christian monastery, the fourth century Monastery of St Catherine at the foot of Mount Sinai in Egypt.

The Codex is important outside of its religious context, in that it's a step in the evolution from scrolls to books. "The parchment was arranged in little multi-page booklets called quires, which were then numbered in sequence. It is thought to be the oldest, large, bound book to have survived," according to an article in The Independent.

To Christian scholars, it offers key insights into which ancient religious texts were brought together in the unit we now know as the Bible. In earlier centuries there were all manner of documents in scroll form of gospels, epistles and other Christian writings. As time went by, some were judged to be authoritative and included in the canon; others were deemed to be apocryphal or errant. The Codex Sinaiticus as it survives is incomplete – originally it would have been about 1,460 pages long – but it includes half of the Old Testament, all the New Testament, and two early Christian texts not found in modern Bibles. It offers the first evidence of the content and the arrangement of the Bible, and includes numerous revisions, additions and corrections made to the text between the 4th and 12th centuries, making it one of the most corrected manuscripts in existence, showing how the text of the Bible was transmitted from generation to generation down through the ages.

That article also notes that there were quite a few alterations between this ancient version of the Bible and what we now consider canonical. It includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas, for instance. And the Gospel of Mark, widely held to be the oldest of the gospels, ends abruptly with the crucifixion - no resurrection.